Collective Resilience After War on Drugs| International World Drug Day 2026
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Illicit drug use, abuse, and misuse are global issues that many societies throughout history have faced (Mehrolhassani et al., 2025). Post-war on drugs (WOD) in the Philippines and collective trauma calls for recommendation for healing, and recovery for Filipinos. I included a few unique factors that explain how the Filipinos became subjected to human rights violations in the 21st century, specifically utilizing individual, social/organizational, and national contexts. Finally, I noted Filipinos' cultural resources, utilizing community-based interventions, transcending mental health and substance narratives through education and adaption of social justice framework for collective healing.
The war on drugs (WOD) is a policy implemented to prohibit the use, consumption, production, and distribution of illicit substances through militarization and police intervention (Mehrolhassani et al., 2025). WOD campaigns take actions such as the imprisonment and death penalty of people who use drugs (PWUD). During the presidency of Mr. Rodrigo Duterte from 2016 to 2022, he pushed for an anti-drug campaign which led to the deaths of about 30,000 individuals in the Philippines (Regilme, 2025). In addition, extrajudicial (government personnel who kill suspects without due process) and vigilante (unlawful exercise of justice against suspects) activities were prevalent during these times. Also, it was revealed by activists that police officers were incentivized to kill PWUD (Cornelio & Maranon, 2019). Often, the deaths were concentrated among less advantaged communities characterized by class (Regilme, 2025). This moment gained attention around the globe, making it a distinct part of Filipino history. International Criminal Court arrested Mr. Rodrigo Duterte for crime against humanity (ICC, n.d.). According to The New York Times (2026), Mr. Ronald dela Rosa, the former chief of police during the anti-drug war, is also facing an arrest warrant and is currently being sought for the same crime. The consequences of the WOD parallel human rights violations in the 21st-century Philippine nation. The foundation of this anti-drug campaign and the stigma surrounding PWUD can be explained at individual (micro), organizational (meso), and systemic (macro) layers.
When looking at the individual context, a 2017 national survey showed that 88% of Filipinos supported the WOD (Pulse Asia Research, 2017). Another national survey noted that the Filipino public perceives health problems, hallucinations, ruptured family connections, and self-image issues as the top negative impacts of drug use (Dangerous Drugs Board, 2019). The same national survey reported that the typical profile of a PWUD is a single, employed male who is a high school graduate and lives in a poor urban area (also known as "squatters"). Yusay et al. (2024) surveyed and interviewed Filipinos service workers including faith-based, medical professionals, community facilitators, rehabilitation and allied professionals. Significant results indicate that faith-based workers agreed that "drug use is a sign of moral weakness," while both medical professionals and faith-based workers agreed with the statement, "once an addict, always an addict." For the organizational context, a study by Cornelio & Maranon (2019) examined the role of megachurches in Manila during the WOD. It is imperative to note that Christianity dominates the Philippines, especially in the northern and central parts of the country. Although there is a separation between church and state, many pastors viewed the WOD as a “righteous intervention.” These attitudes align with the findings of another study arguing that the WOD has inherent religious underpinnings (Cornelio & Maranon, 2019). Furthermore, cultural and spiritual moral standards to “fight evil” reflect a distinct worldview regarding mental health and addiction. Conversely, some Filipinos respond positively to religion, which can motivate PWUD toward treatment and sobriety (Alibudbud, 2023).
In the national or systemic context, a qualitative study by a Filipino physician and medical anthropologist found mixed messages from WOD national campaign. The findings include that PWUD are viewed as: 1) a societal menace, 2) in need of treatment or rehabilitation, 3) victims and passive subjects, and 4) people with agency and human rights (Lasco, 2024). These overall campaign patterns highlights stigma and discrimination are reflected in dehumanizing language. For example, labels such as "less than human," "animals," "societal contagion," or framing drug criminals as "murderers, rapists, monsters, and terrorists" (Regilme, 2025; Thompson et al., 2024) strip humanity from PWUD. Influential organizations shape Filipino stigma, policies, and the nation’s ability to respond to community needs after the WOD. Embedded in a moral and political worldview, the nation's violence and negative stigma were highly concentrated in poor urban areas, targeting people with marginalized identities—such as the less educated, workers in unfavorable conditions (e.g., street vendors, tricycle drivers, construction workers), and in some cases, impoverished youth. This same magnitude of punishment, arrest, and killing did not affect more affluent families, groups, and gated neighborhoods (Regilme, 2025). The national context highlights how systemic power was leveraged to commit human rights violations against Filipinos. For Philippine society to address the aftermath of the War on Drugs (WOD), a renewed meaning-making process must be sustained. This requires social, systemic, political, and economic transcendence, alongside a public health perspective grounded in science." (Regilme, 2025; Thompson et al., 2024). .
The WOD has inflicted psychological, physiological, emotional stress, recovery hurdles, and grief upon Filipino families, neighborhoods, villages, and communities. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), commonly known as trauma, is described as a psychological, physiological, and emotional response to a stressful event—such as death, the threat of death, witnessing or experiencing sexual abuse, or severe injury—that disrupts an individual’s self-organization. The symptoms of PTSD often persist for six months or more after the significant event (American Psychiatric Association, 2022). National tragic events can persist intergenerationally, shaping family narratives, behavioral adaptations, spiritual shifts, and overall community patterns (Watson et al., 2020). A few relevant historical examples of collective trauma include the Holocaust, slavery, Japanese internment, the Trail of Tears (Native Americans), and COVID-19. By responding with intentionality, individuals, families, and communities can heal through post-traumatic growth.
According to Simon et al. (2025), collective trauma should be addressed in two ways: 1) relational and therapeutic support; and 2) collective rituals and healing practices. For instance, peer support can help survivors, families, and communities address feelings of isolation, grief, and the mental health outcomes of this traumatic event. Lived experiences, such as the loss of a loved one due to the WOD or a personal history of substance use issues, can serve as a catalyst for therapeutic connection when caring for individuals, families, and communities. Understanding important Filipino relational dynamics, such as collectivism (valuing the group) and high-context communication (the use of implicit cues and gestures to communicate) are beneficial tool. Furthermore, cultural collective practices support the healthy processing of grief and to build new support systems. Collective rituals (such as formal or informal ceremonies and retreats) can support collective resilience. Approximately 80% of Filipinos identify as Roman Catholics (Alibudbud, 2023). Even though some stigma is amplified by religious teachings, for some Filipinos, religion can be a protective factor that leads to healing, recovery, and mental health well-being (Alibudbud, 2023; Alviar & el Prado, 2022). These somatic and spiritual activities are part of a holistic collective intervention (Bhimla et al., 2021), transcending the meaning-making process and “metabolizing grief” by anchoring the community with mutual support, to foster trust, and communal restoration. It is necessary to collaborate with community-based organizations that deliver quality care, possess expertise, and are culturally attuned to Filipino needs (Bersamira & Macaraeg, 2022; Simon et al., 2025). Organizations and mental health programs can promote education that positively shapes narratives of mental health, PWUD, and poor families. Shifting narratives away from hiya (shame) toward a more compassionate approach promotes the authentic cultural value of kapwa (a cultural value meaning a sense of togetherness). A human-centered policy dismantles separation and dehumanization.
Also, adapting a different drug intervention program, such as Harm Reduction, has shown more positive outcomes than the WOD in other countries that implemented these policies (Mehrolhassani et al., 2025). This issue can be viewed as a public health concern that requires education, evidence-based treatment, and systemic interventions. Lastly, continued social justice engagement is essential, integrating the ICC as the Philippines moves forward as a nation (Regilme, 2025). Furthermore, recommendations include collaborating with ethical organizations, building community-centered programs, and refocusing on equity, true democracy, and the development of humanitarian services to serve the needs of the majority of Filipinos.As Watson et al. (2020) stated, “knowledge, expertise, and understanding the interconnectedness between inequity, trauma, and crisis are critical components of collective care.”
